Serenity

* All the following abstractions are excerpted from <Psychology and Life>, Richard J. Gerrig & Philip G. Zimbardo, 19th edition

Chapter 06 — Learning and Behavior Analysis.

— The Study of Learning

• Learning entails a relatively consistent change in behavior or behavior potential based on experience.

• Behaviorists believe that much behavior can be explained by simple learning processes.

• They also believe that many of the same principles of learning apply to all organisms.

— Classical Conditioning: Learning Predictable Signals

• In classical conditioning, first investigated by Pavlov, an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) elicits an unconditioned response (UCR). A neutral stimulus paired with the UCS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), which elicits a response, called the conditioned response (CR).

• Extinction occurs when the UCS no longer follows the CS.

• Stimulus generalization is the phenomenon whereby stimuli similar to the CS elicit the CR.

• Discrimination learning narrows the range of CSs to which an organism responds.

• For classical conditioning to occur, a contingent and informative relationship must exist between the CS and the UCS.

• Classical conditioning explains many emotional responses and drug tolerance.

— Operant Conditioning: Learning about Consequences

• Thorndike demonstrated that behaviors that bring about satisfying outcomes tend to be repeated.

• Skinner's behavior analytic approach centers on manipulating contingencies of reinforcement and observing the effects on behavior.

• Behaviors are made more likely by positive and negative reinforcement. They are made less likely by positive and negative punishment.

• Contextually appropriate behavior is explained by the three-term contingency of discriminative stimulus — behavior-consequence.

• Primary reinforcers are stimuli that function as reinforcers even when an organism has not had previous experience with them. Conditioned reinforcers are acquired by association with primary reinforcers.

• Probable activities function as positive reinforcers.

• Behavior is affected by schedules of reinforcement that may be varied or fixed and delivered in intervals or ratios.

• Complex responses may be learned through shaping.

— Biology and Learning

• Research suggests that learning may be constrained by the species-specific repertoires of different organisms.

• Instinctual drift may overwhelm some response-reinforcement learning.

• Taste-aversion learning suggests that species are genetically prepared for some forms of associations.

— Cognitive Influence on Learning

• Some forms of learning reflect more complex processes than those of classical or operant conditioning.

• Animals develop cognitive maps to enable them to function in a complex environment.

• Conceptual behavior allows animals to form generalizations about the structure of the environment.

• Behaviors can be vicariously reinforced or punished. Humans and other animals can learn through observation.